3. THE SCIENTIFIC ERA

Unfortunately, the great debate started by Democritus and Aristotle was halted by political upheavals in the region for nearly a millennium until the scholars of the great Islamic civilization of the Middle East and Central Asia, including Arabia and Persia, revived and translated the great Greek philosophical works. Even today, in the Muslim countries there are schools of thought devoted to the teachings and techniques of Pythagoras and Aristotle, with inevitable adaptations and variations. Nawab Mohammad Yamin Khan in his relatively recent book "God, Soul and Universe in Science and Islam" describes God as a Universal Intelligence that controls all phenomena. Averros (Ibn Rushd, 1126-96 C.E) is said to have believed in the eternity of the world (not as a single act of creation but as a continuous process) and in the eternity of a universal intelligence, indivisible but shared in by all. Similar ideas are attributed to Ibnul Arabi. The pioneering work in physics, chemistry, astronomy, mathematics, optics, medicine etc. by such scientist of those days as Ali Ibn Sina (Avicenna, 980-1037 C.E), Al-Khwarizmi (780-880 C.E), Al-Kindi (800-873 C.E), Jaber bin Hayyan (Geber, 721-815 C.E), Omar Khayyam (1050-1123 C.E), Ibnul Haytham (965-1039 C.E) and Al-Beiruni (973-1048 C.E) etc. paved the way for the European scientists and mathematicians who developed the current scientific vocabulary and techniques. The separation and identification of generic chemicals, the discovery of the principles of optics, the development of algebra, geometry, exponents, polynomials, logarithms and the concepts of calculus, the cataloging of botanical species, indexing of astronomical observations etc. provided a useful information base for scientists in areas where metals and other resources were easily available and working close to fire was relatively comfortable. The initiation of the use of mechanical implements, the exploitation of wind power and techniques of evaporative cooling were, indeed, pointers to things that were to come in future. Alchemy or the attempt to produce gold by combining or altering other substances was, perhaps, the embryonic form of the industrial movement whose object is to add value to insignificant materials. Today, apparently worthless materials are processed to the extent that the final products may exceed the worth of their weight in gold. Many Muslim philosophers of the era, commonly known as Sufis, put forward the notion that the universe consists of an interplay of light and darkness in a continuum of geometric space and time. They chose mostly poetry rather than mathematics as their medium for expression and it takes a complex analytical approach to decode their ideas in contemporary parlance.

From the sixteenth to the nineteenth centuries, Europe saw some very interesting philosophical discussions cutting across the borders of science and religion, on questions such as: whether or not God exists, and if so how he interacts with the material universe; whether or not the soul exists, and if so how it interacts with the body; and whether or not man is free to shape his own destiny. Some of the well-known participants in the debate were Bacon, Hobbes, Descartes, Spinoza, Pascal, Calvin, Luther, Locke, Hume, Leibnitz, Voltaire, Rousseau, Kant, Fichte, Schopenhauer, Schelling and Hegel who, together with such others as Nietzsche, Dante and Goethe etc. produced the bulk of what could be called modern European philosophical heritage. By the end of the nineteenth century, Marx and Engels developed their concept of dialectical materialism that contradicted everything that made sense until then in social, religious, political and economic fields. Science was the only undisputed branch of knowledge. The Marxist reaction does not seem altogether incongruous when one considers the fact that many serious intellectuals of those days were convinced that mankind had finally evolved into two distinct species discernible as the ruling and working classes. Some other examples of dichotomacious illusion are Christian-nonchristian, Muslim-nonmuslim, Jewish-nonjewish and Aryan-nonaryan -- both Indian and German varieties.

During the 16th and early 17th centuries, the works of Copernicus, Brahe, Kepler and Galileo established that the earth and other planets rotate and revolve around the Sun in elliptical orbits and telescopes revealed the distances and motions of the stars. The principle of gravitational acceleration was deduced and the invention of the telescope paved the way for the calculation of the distances of various stars from the earth. Simply by measuring the change of the angular bearings of a star over a six month interval and dividing the diameter of the earth's orbit around the Sun by this quantity, it became possible to calculate its distance from the earth or the sun. Apparently fixed stars were used for reference. Today we believe that the universe consists of thousands of galaxies, millions of light years apart, which in turn comprise of thousands of star systems and that Aristotle's crystal spheres do not exist.

In the period spanning the 17th and early 18th centuries, a group of brilliant scientists and mathematicians, notably Newton, Leibnitz, Huygens, Hooke, and Boyle produced calculus and the laws of mechanics, optics, thermodynamics and observations on magnetism and gravitation with experimental verification that transformed the face of the earth. Things would no longer happen by the will of the gods or kings, but by the laws of physics and other sciences to be developed in subsequent years; in spite of the fact that Newton himself is stated to have "considered that God had made the universe from `small indivisible grains of matter'." Newton perceived the formula for gravitational forces between objects also known as `Newton's Law of Gravitation' F=G.m1.m2/d^2 where F is force between two bodies of masses m1 & m2, a distance d apart and G the universal gravitational constant and measured it from experiments with brass balls and torsional pendulum now believed to be 6.673x10^-11 Nm2/Kg2. From this and the value of the acceleration due to gravity on earth's surface as 9.81 meters per second per second (9.81 m/s2) it is possible to calculate earth's mass as 5.97x10^24 Kg. By equating the gravitational force between Earth and the Sun with the centripetal force (F=mrω2 where m is mass of Earth, r is distance between Earth and Sun and ω the angular velocity of Earth around Sun) it was possible to determine the mass of the Sun and similarly all other heavenly bodies.

It is common observation that cohesive forces among the molecules of a body weaken as its temperature rises and become neutralized when it turns into liquid. The force further weakens with increase in temperature until it becomes repulsive when the substance turns into a gas, and the repulsion continues to grow with temperature. It is not clear whether gravitation is modified by temperature or thermal repulsion is a different phenomenon.

Although not commonly highlighted, perhaps, the greatest contribution of Newton and his contemporaries was the development of the consciousness that momentum and energy - kinetic and potential - are essential components in the existence of matter. Momentum is given by the product of mass and its velocity or the integration of force over time; whereas energy is produced by the integration of force over distance. Conversely, the differentiation of momentum with respect to time produces force and so should the differentiation of energy with respect to length or distance: an idea not yet fully developed although it is quite apparent in pulling and pushing and the effects of receiving or emitting radiation at one surface. In simple terms, it is this author's assertion that applying force at a point is nothing but creating an energy differential across it and motion from a higher energy state or location towards a lower energy state or location in a dynamic or kinematic sense is similar to the thermodynamic process of convection. Heat itself does not have a physical existence, but is a measure of energy level with a specific transfer mechanism. The same could be said of electricity, except for its sign i.e positive and negative. Both momentum and energy are considered indestructible. While momentum can only be transferred from one body to another, energy can manifest itself in many forms i.e kinetic, potential, thermal, light, sound, electrical charge, magnetism etc. Although momentum and energy are both derived from velocity, they do not reconcile if all the energy and momentum of one body is transferred to another of differebt mass ( v2/v1=m1/m2 from momentum and (m1/m2)^0.5 from energy).

Integration over time is like collecting water flowing from a hose into a bucket. The water flow rate is the differential and the bucketful the integral. Now it is not possible to reverse the conditions in the hose and bucket, except on paper by differentiation or in reality by applying a new set of appliances; although a new differential can be created by tilting the bucket. However, in elastic systems a certain amount of reversal in distance is possible by virtue of the stored elastic energy which is often dissipated by oscillation; but reversal in time is not possible. It should be noted that if the flow-rate in the aforementioned hose is not constant, and differs with the time of the day then the amount of water collected in the bucket in say five minutes will be different depending on whether it was collected in the morning, noon or evening of a particular day. It is, therefore, important that the symbol representing the result of integration must indicate the relevant limits of integration. It is interesting that scientists have been so preoccupied with Pythagoras' theorem that they are convinced that velocities can be added vectorially because they can be represented by straight lines and not as the consequence of the summation of kinetic energies related to the velocity components in two perpendicular directions (0.5mV^2 = 0.5mVx^2 + 0.5mVy^2). Similarly, the resultant of numerous forces acting on a body is not a game of arrows but the identification of the sum of components in a unique direction in whose normal plane the projections of all the forces add up to nothing.

Newton's laws of motion are regarded as a breakthrough in science, and paved the way to the eventual landing of man on the moon. However, some very interesting situations arise if one analyses the motion of things as one observes on earth, and as they would appear from outside the earth. Let us take a seemingly stationary brick of one kilogram mass and apply a force of one newton to it so that it is accelerated by one meter per second per second for a period of two seconds, at about noon on a clear sunny day close to the equator. During these two seconds, the brick will attain a linear velocity of two meters per second and a kinetic energy of two joules. The work done by one newton over a distance of two meters would also be two joules. So everything works out fine. But the earth, due to its daily rotation around an axis and annual revolutionary motion around the sun, has a surface linear velocity of nearly 29,336 meters per second, which also applies to any person or object on the earth. Hence, to an observer outside the earth, the brick had an initial velocity of 29,336 meters per second which was increased to 29,338 meters per second. This should result in a kinetic energy increase of 1/2x293382-1/2x293362 = 58,674 joules. Similarly, the extraterrestrial observer would also notice that the brick moved a total of 58,674 meters during the two seconds, 58,672 meters with the earth and 2 meters on it under the force of one newton; so that the work done should be force times distance i.e 58,674 joules. By the same token, an observer beyond the solar system would get even larger figures for the same phenomenon as he would also add the drift of the solar system. The question, therefore, is: Who is right? Obviously, the earth-based observer can support his calculation with the muscular or mechanical energy spent in the exercise which compares with the two joules figure. Similarly, the extraterrestrial observer might notice a slowing down of the earth or a change in the entropy of the overall solar system comparable with his own observation of changes in velocity and kinetic energy of the brick. One could satisfy himself by saying that whereas the earth-based observer is accounting for events relative to the time when the brick started accelerating, the observer out in space is doing the same with reference to the time when the parent system, the earth started moving. But such a statement would be neither mathematically nor philosophically convincing. Only it can be said with certainty that in a moving reference frame if the primary and secondary motions are parallel, then the apparent work done equals the apparent change in kinetic energy whether one considers the relative or the absolute motions. The primary motion defines the positive direction. If the secondary motion is at an angle to the primary motion then its components parallel to the primary motion and at right angles to it should be treated separately for the application of the conservation principle. Now, could it be that for a very modest expenditure of energy by us, nature sometimes has to pay significantly more in overheads? The problem can be looked at in two different perspectives by analogies. The first analogy is that of delivering a parcel to someone in another city. One can do it himself by taking a taxi to the airport, then a plane to the other city, then again a taxi to the address where the parcel is to be delivered. This would involve a considerable expenditure, not counting the return journey. The same result can be achieved much cheaply by walking to the nearest courier service or post office and making a relatively small payment. The difference in cost seems intriguing until one finds out that the courier who travels to deliver the parcel carries many other parcels also with him, or there is a complex but well organized postal system which makes the job so cheap.

The second analogy is that of driving a car. To a nontechnical person it involves the filling of fuel tank with petrol, turning the ignition key, moving the steering wheel, manipulating the pedals, changing gears by moving a lever and giving signals by operating the indicators. It all involves such an insignificant amount of effort and energy. Most of us have observed the child who jumps on the driving seat and enthusiastically swings the steering wheel hoping that it would move the car because that is what his observation has been limited to. Similarly, a naive researcher may spend a lifetime studying the behavior of cars and succeed in drawing only a few conclusions about when the blinking lights occur and so on; but ever thing may seem quite simple if he talks to drivers and mechanics or reads the highwaycode and the car manual. However, the automobile engineer sees the motion of the car in terms of the flow of currents, the flow of fuel and air into the engine, the movement of the butterfly in the carburetor and other valves, the ignition of the mixture in the cylinders, the thrust on the pistons, the torque on the crank shaft, the transmission of forces through the gearbox, connecting rod, and differential, the multiplication of forces and movements in the steering mechanism and so on. The designer has his own considerations in terms of thermodynamics, mass flow, kinematics, aerodynamics and strength of materials, to name a few topics. Could it be that our perception of the universe, in spite of all our scientific knowledge, is of the order of the comfortable driver rather than the automobile engineer who sees many a horsepower at work in the engine? In any case, the above observations are enough to caution us that an immodest manipulation of forces or energies on earth could create a considerably magnified effect somewhere to cause instability in one of the systems essential for our survival.

Another divergence that one comes across in the same era of scientific investigation is in the theories of light as put forward by Newton and Huygens. Newton, on the basis of the observations of reflection and refraction of light by Kepler, Descartes, Snell etc. suggested that light consists of minute corpuscles given out by a luminous body. Different colors of light were assigned to different sizes of the corpuscles. Huygens, on the other hand, studied the diffraction of light and was convinced that light is a sort of wave generated by a luminous body in ether, an all pervading elastic substance which filled the entire universe including the intermolecular spaces of solids. A number of optical phenomena that could not be explained by the corpuscular theory were found to yield to analysis based on the wave theory. Maxwell's development of the theory of electromagnetic radiation in the nineteenth century confirmed the wave theory of light and brought the concept of ether to the forefront of scientific investigation.

The eighteenth and nineteenth centuries saw prolific developments in physics and chemistry combined with a very rapid rate of innovation and invention. The progress in basic sciences led to the development of better and more precise equipment and machines which in turn enhanced the capabilities of scientists to conduct experiments and make new discoveries. Some of the notable scientists of the era include Pascal, Benjamin Franklin, Galvani, D'alembert, Volta, Faraday, Joule, Charles, Gauss, Carnot, Ampere, Kelvin, Hertz, Mendelyev, Coulumb, Rankine, Roentgen, and the Curies. Although their work did not directly influence the theories about the universe, the increase in knowledge and understanding of the properties of matter and the scope of their application indirectly contributed to the developments that took place in the twentieth century. John Dalton of this period is credited with the formulation of the modern chemical atomic theory. J.J. Thomson, in 1897, discovered the electron and postulated that atoms consisted of two parts; the spherical shell that contained most of the mass and uniformly distributed positive charges with negatively charged electrons embedded in it. Experiments with Thomson's cathode ray discharge tube and Millikan's oil drop apparatus helped to determine the vital statistics of the electron as being a mass of 9.1x10^-31 kilogram, a radius of 2.8178x10^-15 meter and a charge of 31.85x10^-16 coulombs equal to 1.6x10^-19 joule also known as one electron volt. The electron, thus, has a mass density of 9.721x10^12 kilogram per cubic meter i.e. a liter of electrons would weigh about one hundred million tons if packed closely. This, of course, would never happen as even in the common electrical wire the charge only flows in a thin outer skin because of the repulsion of like charges.

Romer in 1673 determined the velocity of light as approximately 3x10^8 meters per second from observations on the eclipses of the satellites of Jupiter. Bradlay was able to calculate the velocity of light in 1726 from the apparent displacement or aberration of the fixed stars, which he discovered, due to the earth's orbital velocity of about 18.5 miles per second which yielded the value of 185,000 miles per second. Fizeau, using a toothed wheel to interrupt at very fast intervals a light beam which was reflected along the same path, measured the velocity of light as 3.13x10^8 meters per second in air. Foucault using a rotating mirror to produce an image shift measured the velocity of light to be 298,000 kilometers per second. Using laboratory sized equipment and a tube filled with water he found that "light traveled more slowly in water than in air." Later, Michelson with similar apparatus showed that the ratio of the velocities of light in air and water was equal to 1.33 - in good agreement with the value of the refractive index. The velocity of light in water is thus 2.26x10^8 meters per second. However, Michelson found that the velocity of yellow light was 1.76 times greater in air than in carbon bisulphite; the corresponding refractive index of carbon bisulphite is 1.64. This resulted in the discovery of dispersion and the concept of wave velocity and group velocity in dispersive media. As a result of these experiments the wave nature of light was established.

However, neither the corpuscular nor the wave theory explained all the phenomena related to light; although each explained some. Similarly, the assumption of the presence of ether created it's own problems. Michelson and Morley (1881-1887) carried out an ingenious experiment to verify the existence or otherwise of ether by splitting a beam of light into two beams at right angles and then making the two component beams converge at one point to produce interference patterns. But the rotation of the system to align one or the other beam with the orbital movement of the earth (30,000 meters per second) in concurrent and opposite directions did not cause any change in the interference fringe pattern. It was thus concluded that the ether did not really exist and that the velocity of light is invariant in a given medium or empty space where it is maximum and remains constant in all directions. It was also argued that Maxwell's equation did not necessarily require the existence of a hypothetical medium, but could be interpreted in terms of geometrical space. The void was back in place. Until then, time was regarded as a universally invariant phenomenon and distances were considered absolute. However, Lorentz starting with Maxwell's line of reasoning and introducing a moving observer came up with a set of equations that could only be true if time and space were to dilate or become nonabsolute, having different values for different observers.

The realization of the finite velocity of light resulted in the recognition of an obvious element of uncertainty in observed phenomena. A physical change would not be regarded as existing until light from it reached an observer, and even then he would only know the state of affairs that existed when the light reaching him had started from the subject of observation. There is, thus, a time lag between the occurrence and observation of any phenomenon, no matter how small this time lag is.

2. THE EARLY SCIENTISTS

Our conception of what is possible, and what should be discarded as impossible depends largely on our perception of the universe as well as the range of our observations. It is equally true whether we indulge in a statistical analysis of limited scope, or natural philosophy encompassing the entire cosmos. Even in a scientific analysis, the direction and scope of investigation is defined by the chosen or stipulated constitutive equations and the observed boundary conditions. In fact, perception and conception are considerably more interrelated than we usually realize. Imagine the consternation of a robotic visitor from outer space on earth whose range of perceptions is limited to solid inorganic materials such as rocks and metals. Not being able to see the human beings, animals and trees and plants he would be wondering about the important role wrist watches, rings, buttons, buckles, shoe-nails, ear-rings and lockets play in the running of the mechanical systems on the earth. He is bound to be surprised at the observation that the arrival of keys and other trinkets brings automobiles to life, and the accumulation of a number of vehicles in the vicinity of a building and the movement of trinkets, especially nibs close to large machines causes great mechanical movements and production. Eventually, even if our visitor develops the means to detect the existence of fruit and vegetable, not being able to perceive those who consume them, he might wonder if there are holes in space into which things disappear. And, of course he would be convinced of the existence of dark invisible matter. If he persists in his investigations rather than making an escape from this baffling place, after some time he would come to believe that there exist on earth, life forms that he is unable to see, although in some ways he can feel their presence. Similarly, over the centuries mankind has come to believe in the existence of invisible forces that influence its existence.

The fact that modern physicists have accepted the existence of massless particles that transport energy and momentum or electrons making quantum leaps in privileged orbits definitely has roots in thousands of years of belief in spirits and genie, if not exactly a case of substituting superstitions. So let us, briefly, go through the history of the development of the concept of the physical universe, and see if the divergent views can be unified to achieve a globally acceptable model that obviates the need to turn a blind eye to certain undeniable facts. The most significant and trying question in such an analysis is: Where to start? There are many ancient mythologies which present some sort of a model of the universe that can be interpreted variously by the substitution of terms to indicate the probable intention of the author in contemporary vocabulary. The Greek, Chinese and Indian ancient religious traditions, to name the best known, have their own romance and socio-spiritual utility for those who choose to adopt them. They might even be distorted expressions of Divine revelations. However, none of those has produced an offshoot that could be recognized as a movement towards sustained intellectual or scientific development leading to the present day state of affairs; although their occasional or indirect contributions can not be denied. Let us, therefore, start with Democritus, the fifth century BC Greek philosopher who is generally credited with the discovery of the Atom.

The work of Democritus is summarized by Giorgio de Santillana in the following words:

"In order to rescue phenomena and have them reveal a rational reality, Democritus projects it, on two levels. Space is one, and matter is one, too, and events are due to the changing dispositions of matter in space. Empedocles had apparently disregarded (if it had ever reached him, for there is a question of dates, too) the sharp reasoning of Zeno, which led from total divisibility to the irrelevance of physical matter. Democritus was mathematician enough to acknowledge its full impact. This led him to dispose once and for all of the equivocation about particles going into the smaller and smaller, by posting firmly a threshold of divisibility. Hence we must conceive of matter as composed of mobile elements, all of the same substance but of different forms and sizes; small enough to bring forth the many things of this world only by aggregating and coming apart, and also small enough to remain themselves unbroken or "undivided" in the turmoil, as are the grains of sand on a wave laden beach. "Undivided" is the Greek `atomon', and it is thus that the key image of modern physics makes its appearance.

Since atoms are the only reality, they move in what must be emptiness, and so that other key idea, the "void" has been brought in. The universe, until then, had always been thought of as being full, were it only, as in Parmenides, "Being full of Being", the abstract density of the true continuum which was also in some way the body-of-the-world. Here the dichotomy is completed; we have the continuum become what it truly was from the start, geometrical empty space, and in it the one matter, conceived on its part as "wholly full" and compact; but that matter has nothing but geometrical properties itself, derived from space. It has "size, shape, position and velocity". Nothing else is needed to describe the atom".

He goes on:

"The extant scientific fragments of Democritus, as we have said, are miserably few. But each one of them goes straight to the heart of the matter:

"Nothing comes about perchance, but all through reason and by necessity. [This is already attributed to his master Leucippus.]

Nothing can be created out of nothing, nor can it be destroyed and returned to nothing.

There is no end to the universe, since it was not created by any outside power.

By convention color, by convention sweet, by convention bitter; in reality nothing but the atom and the void.""

The atomic theory has already been developed and expanded to very useful limits as we shall see in subsequent discussion. The question as to whether the universe is limitless or finite will be answered in time. If the universe is finite then light must be reflected from its boundaries and it should be possible to observe and identify reflected images of stars and galaxies through the advanced techniques of sky mapping already developed and being used by astronomers. In fact, the identification of reflected images should help to determine the exact dimensions of the universe. If the Universe is finite then the actual number of galaxies that can be seen through telescope may not be as high as it seems. We might just be seeing multiply reflected images of the same galaxy or galaxies at different times in antiquity. The more powerful a telescope the fainter and older image it would show and it would appear to be farther away. One day we may develop a telescope strong enough to show the picture of the universe as it was “in the beginning.”

Could our hollow universe be nothing more than an air pocket in a very large casting? The ultra-simplistic binary concept of the atom and the void also had to be modified when Democritus realized that there would have to be an innumerable variety of atoms in order to account for the diversity in the properties of the materials that exist. The atheism propounded by Democritus seems to be a logical extension of the intellectual movement proceeding from the mythological polytheism to Anaximander's monotheism, which was interpreted by his scientific mind more or less in the same way as some of the twentieth century scientists. The rejection chain syndrome! It is also a typical example of the fact that whenever the possibility of a change in the status quo arises, everyone tries to mold the situation according to his or her own thinking or whim.

In the very next century, an even more formidable intellectual juggernaut, Aristotle came forward with a far more eloquent rebuttal of the ideas put forth by Democritus. His package included a summarization of all existing philosophy regarding cosmology, physics, mathematics, biology, sociology, religion, and literature; augmented by his direct observations on biology and the four element (earth, water, air and fire) theory of the composition of matter. If we interpret earth, water, air and fire as the primitive concepts of the states of matter -- solid, liquid, gas and radiant energy -- then the void would contain a certain amount of rarefied gases and radiant energy; whereas on earth there would be various varieties and combinations of each of the four basic forms. It is such a pity that none of his contemporaries nor followers tried to reconcile the two and suggest that the three states of matter could have atomic structures. Giorgio de Santillana sums up the universe model of Aristotle as follows:

Quote:

"Plato had made it very clear that true knowledge is divorced, "cut off" as he insists, from sensible reality, whose symbol is the dark wall of the Cave. Between the two worlds there is only geometry to join them, myth, and the wings of Socratic Eros, of which we are told in the Symposium. For Aristotle, the Ideas are inherent in the individual substances; they are nowhere else to be found and known, except in the Active Intellect of God who thinks them forever and thus causes the world to function. But if there is nothing but physical substance, it must extend all the way to the upper limit of heaven, and be such as to account for the geometrical behavior of the stars. There will be rigid spheres, hard, transparent, crystalline, to carry the celestial bodies. The abstract mathematical models of the astronomers (of which hereafter) are transformed by Aristotle into an absurd machinery of crystal spheres turning and counterturning so as to cancel out all except the one driving 24-hour motion, that of the outer heaven or Primium Mobile, which in turn is moved by the Unmoved Mover "as a thing beloved."

"That outer sphere encloses and concludes the universe. Beyond it there is only God, who is totally actualized thought, immaterial, enfolding the whole. There is no space out there, for space is "place" and place has ceased. There is no void, because the void does not exist. The universe is an achieved Form, which excludes any reality beyond it. Inside, all is Form again, in a hierarchy of causes which goes down to the individual beings. Plato's concept of Design has been demathematized, Ionian fashion.

"We can see how Aristotle has solved the original problem of the One and the Many. The Ionians had imagined a primeval matter, a single physis, underlying everything. Aristotle shows that it was merely a symbol to be worked out. Matter itself can have only amorphous oneness; it is the raw material, the Possible. Above it there are the efficient causes which ultimately become one cause, the rotation of the Outer Sphere. This is supposed to bring about the motion of the Sun in its yearly cycle, which in turn controls the motions of the four elements. The cause of the change lies in the obliquity of the ecliptic. The formal cause of nature is again, at the summit, one; it is the total Design; and above it is the final cause, which is also the First Cause, God himself. "It is good that there should be only one ruler." Unity is throughout. It works articulated into four levels."

Unquote.

Ali Hijveri's paradox "I am in search of nonexistence" could be a sarcasm in support of the Aristotelian point of view, meaning that the void would cease to exist the moment one reaches it.

Archimedes of 3rd century B.C. commonly recognized as the discoverer of buoyancy stands out as a great forerunner of the later scientists in all fields of mathematical analysis, experimentation and innovation. He not only found a way of testing the purity of gold, but also set in motion the development of hydraulics. It is interesting to note that even in ancient societies, once the process of thinking and exchanging ideas was set in motion, people would appear from nowhere to contribute and develop a more or less comprehensive scenario, even if they themselves did not fully appreciate it.

Wiki Wakey

Apart from his moral weaknesses, if there are any, one has to commend the bold and committed efforts of Julian Assange to bring hidden records of contemporary history into public view. There is no reason why there should not be transparecy in international diplomatic dealings. The days of the court historians distorting facts and making the rulers and their servants look like saint are gone. The people have a right to know what their so called leaders are doing and saying.

Costant monitoring of the goings on in the corridors of power by honest and sensible intellectuals is a must as we know from the experience of twentieth century wars that any industrialized democratic contry has the potential of turning into Nazi Germany given bad rulers and controlled media.

The sudden appearance of a whole set of criminanal offences by Julian Assange and the swift action of international legal authorities is obviously suspicious. It does not cost much to avail the services of a Desire Washington.

The concerted action of governments to deny the basic huamn right of information is a criminal conspiracy to say the least. It is a pity that the most professed champions of freedom of speech buckle so easily under pressure from a super power.

The reaction to WikiLeaks is far more revealing than the leaks themselves. There is an Urdu saying "iss hammam mein sub nangay" which means that everyone in this bath is naked. It seems to apply quite adroitly to the world's political and diplomatic community. They are all enraged rather than ashamed by the leaks. Perhaps the ill actions will continue until the next elections.

I hope that this controversy will unite the more resolute intellectuals of the world and help to create new traditions of honest information sharing.

1. FROM PHILOSOPHY TO SCIENCE

In the introduction to his book "A Study of History" Arnold Toynbee grieves about the transformation in the organization of knowledge that took place during his lifetime -- from integrated comprehensive discourses to fragmentary periodical articles on limited and specialized topics. He has ventured to unify the history of mankind into an integrated analysis, but he also had to split the early civilizations into a dozen societies which he tried to synthesize in terms of gradual interactions among their kings and soldiers. Toynbee's complaint highlights the change in scholastic attitude that has taken place over the past nearly one century, the merits and demerits of which are, indeed, debatable. An orientalist, Idries Shah, in his book "The Sufis" lets out steam against the latest way of thinking in the following words:

"Modern science, however, instead of accepting the idea that experience was necessary in all branches of human thought, took the word in its sense of "experiment", in which the experimenter remains as far as possible outside the experiment."

The above splitting of the Urdu/Persian word `Tajurba' is also a classic example of the difference between a historian and a Sufi who is primarily concerned about how individuals feel. Obviously, Idries Shah, not being familiar with the esoteric morality or ethics of scientific research, has mistaken the "coolness" of scientific attitude as "coldness". Briefly, it can be stated that in scientific parlance truth becomes accuracy, honesty is called exactness, love is known as dedication and life is identified as growth or movement. The need to produce unbiased observations necessitates an attitude of temporary detachment, just as a judge can not afford to be emotional. Similarly, many opinions are not expressed simply for the fear of appearing partisan. The various postulates that one comes across in the study of modern science are not prophecies but compulsive assumptions that are necessary to accommodate a line of reasoning with observed facts. Only a qualified scientific mind would comprehend the burden this author is carrying due to the many approximations being presented in this book which, of course, are necessary for the purpose of this publication which seeks to expose the subtlety rather than the rigidity of existence. Yet, an attempt has been made to remain as unequivocal as possible. It may be worth mentioning here that during my stay in the United Kingdom I discovered that whereas in the better educated communities the words professionalism and glamour were understood to mean objectivity and attractiveness respectively, among the less educated they denoted deceptive antics and pornography in that order. In the language used in this book an attempt has been made to ensure that the same impressions are created on all readers by a given set of facts or words.

Idries Shah's objections do seem sustainable in the case of social sciences. In social research, one needs to feel the way the subjects of one's study feel without getting carried away by those feelings. An attempt to develop social theories by remote observation of people's actions and reactions usually results in the formation of oppressive regimes of thought which may eventually develop into rather messy situations such as the misuse of the developing knowledge of psychology in Communist and Nazi dictatorships and the frequent exploitation of religion in some parts of the world. Perhaps a lot of mutual contempt among cultures and religions is the result of barriers which disallow the sharing of experiences. Similarly, the current democratic norm of allowing `popular' representatives to frame national policies constitutes a means of bridging the gap between suspecting socio-political groups who think that they do not feel alike because their levels of affluence, lifestyles or ethnic attributes differ.

Even in basically identifiable cultures, one finds diverse sub-cultures based on the misunderstanding of its fundamental literature. Roomi's parables were intended to give hope to the desperate. The various anecdotes illustrate how one can recover from a seemingly hopeless situation by responding positively to an accidental turn in events and achieve astonishing success and glory. But unfortunately the noble message has been grossly misinterpreted resulting in the development of cults among his followers based on such common traits as procrastination, lust and opportunism. Similarly, the following verse of Iqbal has been exploited as the perverse justification for antisocial connivance in his homeland.

"Too he nadan chand kalion per qina'at kar gaia

Warna gulshan men elaj e tangi e daman bhi tha."

Translation:

How foolish of thee to be content with just a few buds,

While the blossoming garden had means of carrying much more.

The misinterpretation of wisdom is a glamorous vice that spreads like an invisible virus and causes social disasters of epidemic proportions. Hence it is imperative that while putting forward ideas with popular appeal a spade must be called a spade and nothing else; no matter what the risks in doing so.

Modern science owes much of its respectability to its adroitness in expressing the observation and understanding of natural phenomena or the rules of their occurrence in terms of precise mathematical expressions or formulas which can not be interpreted in more than one ways and whose validity can be tested or demonstrated by visible experiments that produce measurable and recordable results that, in turn, can be repeated in any part of the world by individuals who may or may not have any special training in the particular branch of science. Indeed, in some scholarly circles, a scientific achievement is not recognized as a `contribution' until it has been independently verified by others and unless a laboratory experiment based on it can be used for the instruction of students.

However, Science is not entirely averse to conceptual compromises if they can contribute to the achievement of positive results. One case in common knowledge is the square root of minus one known as the imaginary quantity which, in spite of having no physical significance in a perceptory sense, plays a key role in the solution of equations, the results of which can be verified by perceptory means. The negative quantities so often encountered in contemporary mathematics are, in a sense, a manifestation of the phenomenon of egocentricity or assuming the origin of the coordinate axes to be located at the central point of the event under investigation. If on the other hand, the origin of the coordinate axes is taken a convenient distance away, then it would be possible to operate in a totally positive environment or field or space or universe or whatever one elects to call it. Commendably enough, modern Computer Scientists and Engineers have managed to rise above the negativistic datum by taking five volts as the zero state and twelve volts as the unity state. The absolute zero of the temperature scale, which could be called thermal potential, has already been found: Could there be a limiting value of voltage i.e. electrical potential or charge also? In the case of all-positive charge system there would have to be a critical value which would have to be subtracted from both interacting charges. Thus a negative or positive product would be obtained indicating mutual attraction or repulsion.

It is also possible to develop a set of spatial coordinates which would always have positive values by joining the center of gravity of a regular tetrahedron with its four corners and extending the resultant lines. Space would thus be divided into four tetrahedral quadrants, each identified by a unique set of three coordinates. The negative sign would, indeed, continue to be used to denote reversal or subtraction.

Another example of compromise is the acceptance of multiple solutions to higher degree equations as the final answer rather than looking for the additional condition that would identify the unique solution, although the more discreet scientist is apt to make some sort of a symbolic or literal notation to reflect its provisionality. The physical universe is invariably three dimensional, and the solution of any problem in a two dimensional frame is tantamount to projection and dealing with shadows. Similarly, time as we usually visualize it is the measure of the angular movement of the earth on its axis; although Mathematics so far does not recognize angle as a dimension. The argument can be related to the Sufic concept of `La Makan' or a vacuous location at an infinite distance which can never be physically observed as anything but a point, and the angle subtended by any geometrical interval at that distance would constitute an infinitesimally small angle leading to the disappearance of time. Obviously, we need some tangible definitions of space and time before we could exercise any meaningful control over them.

The beneficial application of the great formulas of pure sciences falls, chiefly, within the purview of technology or engineering, which has produced so many amenities in modern life, and which is rightly or wrongly blamed for most of the latter's ills. However, the application of scientific formulas for achieving practical results requires five essential elements in addition to construction, namely computation, measurement, actuation, monitoring and control (or feed-back). A virtually fixed point of reference, and often a means of anchorage to a virtually fixed location are also necessary. The engineer, sometimes, simply utilizes the laws of nature by building necessary constraints. One must salute the great scientists and technologists who have explored and exploited the intricate formulas of nature for the benefit of mankind. The only remaining question is: How do the formulas get applied in nature at large without human intervention? How does the velocity get squared when the wind bends the bough?

It seems that even the prehistoric philosophers were convinced that in order to function stably within life sustaining limits, the Universe requires a supervisory system. Consequently, numerous models of the probable supervisory system were put forward in different parts of the world and came to be known as religions. The Greeks had a god for everything. Indian religious literature speaks of a million great souls (Mahan atman) who reside in the Himalayas and control every thing that happens in the world. Islamic traditions even give names of angels who are assigned the management of various worldly functions such as communication, arranging rains and crops, and taking lives etc. The mathematical concept of God is one of a universal origin. One simple example is the origin of a graph where the coordinate axes intersect. All the processes and equations exist at this point, but the values of all the variables and functions are zero. At the same time, no point in the system can be defined without reference to the origin. Hence the frequent references to God (Insha Allah) by those with a strong sense of religion. However, in most communities, closed institutions were formed which claimed to have access to the supervisory system and began to make demands on their respective communities that would place the former in an unreasonably comfortable and dominant position in relation to other fellow beings in return for solving their problems by communicating with the supervisory system. As time passed, it became obvious that many, or perhaps most, of these institutions were nothing more than facades to extort undue benefits, and their `miracles' were merely tricks and sleight of hand. On the other hand, the seemingly genuine ones were so tyrannically choosy in allowing new aspirants to join their circles of study, or the initiation rites and initial courses were so atrociously discouraging that very few would have the patience to pursue the discipline for long. So, failing to break the closely guarded circles, the more intelligent and resourceful group decided to find its own access to the universal supervisory system by identifying and tapping into its components or subsystems through the conduit of scientific investigation. Soon the scientific institution, by virtue of its ability to heal and comfort, itself became a power axis and conflict between the two became inevitable. Before long, the antagonism grew to such a large extent that the two contenders began to needlessly deny the virtual basis of existence of each other. The result was that the development of both was hindered and, perhaps, even disoriented. An interesting account of confrontations between the seekers of knowledge and policy makers of faith can be found in Hoodbhoy's "Muslims and Science". The modern educated man's ability to believe only selected parts of his own knowledge is indeed an achievement in the area of self-control which far exceeds the ancient mystic's ability to believe in the unknown.

Once we accept the existence of a supervisory system for the Universe and that things happen in this world according to a basic plan, it is possible to develop a coherent scenario spanning the past and future of life on Earth. Almost all religions agree that before the emergence of plant-animal life, the earth was dominated by some sort of spiritual life forms who possessed very little physical strength and ability in spite of great knowledge and cognitive powers. They designed and developed plant and then animal species through a process of organic evolution that culminated in the domination of the Earth by civilized mankind who possess much greater physical strength and ability than their originators. Whether or not that spiritual race exists today, we do not know as they are beyond our perception. Human civilizations have been working over the past four millennia or so and developed a new life-form in the shape of stationary and mobile machinery that possess even greater physical strength and ability. When the wheel was first invented, man used to push or pull a cart; now a man sits unnoticed in gigantic mobile mechanical devices that perform extraordinary feats. With the rapid development of computerized robots, a time may come when the world may appear to be entirely dominated by mechanical life with human beings invisible in the background controlling their destiny.

Could it be that space probes being launched towards other planets and solar systems are and would be used by spiritual beings to transport themselves? Until we find scientific proof of their existence, this would only be a thought.

In modern times there exists a third, secular school of thought. The secular thinker may be totally ignorant of science, and may even practice some religion whether or not he has studied it, but he is opposed to any role of religion except as one of many tolerable personal vices. Secularism seems to have arisen out of protest against the exploitation of the sentiments of honest faithfuls and the occasional show of intolerance and violence by the more faithful, and portrays a fundamental difference in attitudes. Whereas religion insists that human social conduct should be based on a sense of moral duty, secularism believes in the supremacy of law and assertion of rights. However, the universal charter of human rights is hardly a match for the eternal charter of human duties embodied in the Qur'an -- the culmination of human and Divine religious thought. In the secular system rights imply duties, but in the religious system duties generate rights which is a more positive way of ensuring equity and harmony. In a religious system one tries to acquire implements that would help to discharge one's duties and please others; in a secular system one tries to amass possessions that reinforce one's confidence and help in asserting one's rights by intimidating others. In some communities a compromise has been reached so that most of the strong and affluent citizens are only concerned with asserting their rights and making large profits, but they do not interfere with the activities of a religious group that considers its duty to help the weak and poor to survive. There are also those who assist others in asserting their rights for a price or share in their fortunes. There seems no reason why modern state management techniques can not be reconciled with religious doctrine and vice versa.

Before we move on to the study of the development of science and technology, the reader should be reminded of their humanitarian aspects. It is true that the invention and availability of firearms, originally intended for defense against aggressors, has made it possible for the physically and mentally weak to kill healthy, normal and even noble human beings. Similarly, making and printing pictures has become so easy that even imbeciles can produce glossy prints of artless pornography. Yet, inventions should not be looked upon as mere individual achievements of people which also made them famous and rich. There is a very significant social and communal aspect of inventions which have drastically changed the way people live and think. Moreover, the instantaneous and pervasive optimism and elation that must have engulfed communities is bound to have spurred them on to noble ideals. The thought can best be illustrated by examples.

Think of the time when eye-glasses were not invented and people with weak eye-sights lived a life of deprivation. The invention of spectacles must have reactivated tens of thousands of people as useful members of the community producing a completely new approach to life. This author has experienced cataract in both eyes and knows how ugly and distorted this world must appear to people in old age suffering from cataract. The relief one feels on regaining normal sight can hardly be described in words. The invention of the printing press was another landmark in the process of civilization. It made the arduous task of dissemination and acquisition of knowledge very easy and resulted in a phenomenal increase in literacy and education aided by such other innovations as paper and fountain pen. Similarly the invention of street lamps was a turning point in the lives of people at large. It not only made emergency traveling at night easier but also lit up the paths for night work and night entertainment. Combined with the invention of power-producing engines and work-facilitating machines, the concepts of productivity and leisure were completely revolutionized. The invention of photography and cinematography made it possible to preserve and propagate pictures with great precision and detail with immense educational value. Combined with radio and television broadcasting it also led to the development of the soft technology of impression synthesis which opened up new channels of consumption acceleration and money circulation. We can only understand how fortunate we are if we look at the world which did not, or does not, have what most of us in the relatively developed world regard as basic amenities.